Older adults who might benefit from pet ownership often face barriers

Older adults - particularly if they are struggling to make ends meet - are at high risk of illness and emotional disorders, the effects of which can be greatly reduced by pet ownership. A pet provides companionship to an older person and can also boost their well-being. In a paper published in the journal Activities, Adaption & Aging, researchers review the literature on pet ownership by older adults and, after outlining the potential benefits to their physical and emotional health, discuss the barriers they face in adopting pets. Pets not only provide companionship, they can boost health in other ways, such as emotional support and increased physical activity. However, older people face many hurdles to pet ownership: they may be worried about the cost, and whether they are physically fit enough to take care of and feed a pet. Buy Keflex (Cephalexin) without prescription They may also worry about what might happen to their beloved companion should they become ill or die. In their paper, to illustrate some of these barriers to pet ownership by older people, the researchers tell the story of Janet, a 75-year-old widow who is obese, has diabetes and suffers from arthritis. Janet, who lives independently, describes herself as a cat lover. Mysoline (Primidone) She has had many pet cats in the past and would like to have one now. She has seen a story in the local news about an animal shelter and is thinking about adopting a cat from there, but is concerned about the financial commitment and what would happen to the cat if she became ill or passed away. About Zithromax (Azithromycin) She is also concerned about what the adoption fees might be and the pet deposit fee in her apartment building. Buy Asprin without prescription The researchers note that Janet s situation, the conflicts between her desire for a pet and her concerns, is very common. About Procardia (Nifedipine) with free prescription They note: "There are many older adults who feel that they could benefit from pet ownership and there are far too many shelter animals in need of adoption. Buy Cocoa Tea online Yet barriers exist that can impede and often preclude this adoption process." The result is a pitiful lose-lose situation: older adults are denied the potential benefits of pet ownership, and the animals stay longer in the shelter and are at greater risk of euthanasia. Perceptions of disability may be the barrier rather than actual physical limitations In an effort to transform this into a win-win situation, the researchers discuss what might increase the chances for older adults to become pet owners - particularly those who perceive their chronic conditions and cost as the biggest hurdles. While acknowledging that chronic conditions like arthritis, diabetes, hypertension, and obesity are rising, the authors note that these do not necessarily result in disability. http://medicalhelper.wordpress.com Developed countries like the US may be seeing rising rates of these chronic illnesses, but levels of actual disability are falling, they add. One explanation could be increased ways of supporting people with chronic conditions - such as the growth in home care and assistive technology. Perhaps, the authors suggest: "The true barrier to pet ownership for older adults may lie more in the perception of disability than in the actual limitations themselves." They also suggest that older adults may doubt their abilities, when actually, they are capable of looking after a pet. What they need is confidence and support to help them adopt a pet. Also, they may set their heart on a pet that is more demanding - dogs need to be exercised regularly while cats do not, and guinea pigs and rabbits require even less physical care - but perhaps they could be persuaded to consider other options that are more compatible with their needs and abilities. More creative solutions from professionals needed The researchers suggest that health professionals and shelter professionals could work together and encourage pet adoption and even "prescribe" the right pet for the right issue - for example, to address isolation, grief or depression. Animal shelters could also set up and test programs whereby older adults could adopt pets on a trial basis, they note. In discussing barriers related to cost, the team acknowledges that these are probably the most challenging. They urge all parties involved to come up with creative solutions. For instance, some meals on wheels programs include an option for pet meals. And perhaps, if building policies considered the benefit to older, solitary residents mental health of having a pet, they might lower or even waive the pet deposit fee - which the authors note is perhaps the biggest barrier to pet ownership among poorer older people. They also urge health and care professionals to include the effect of any human-animal bonds in their clients lives when carrying out care assessments. If these were taken into account, then their potential benefit to their clients health may be seen to be big enough to override some of the no-pet policies that seem to prevail. While many assisted-living facilities appear to allow pets, nursing homes do not. This can cause considerable distress to an older person moving from one to the other. Perhaps policies cannot bend as far as to allow pets in the nursing homes, but care plans could include provision to continue the human-animal bond - perhaps by arranging regular visits from or to the family member or friend who has taken on the care of the pet. The authors conclude: "Future researchers should continue to explore the human-animal bond for older adult populations, particularly for those with cognitive, physical, and financial limitations. There is so much potential benefit here for both pets and potential pet owners." First author Keith Anderson, from the University of Montana in Missoula, says he became interested in doing the study because: "As a geriatric social work researcher, I ve always been interested in finding creative, cost-effective ways to improve the lives and well-being of older adults. As already mentioned, cats may be less demanding, easier and cheaper to care for than dogs, but what many owners may not realize is that cats can get stressed, especially if their routine is disturbed or they have to share the home with another cat. Medical News Today recently reported a review by a group of veterinarians from the Autonomous University of Barcelona that discusses the causes and effects of stress in pet cats and also gives advice on how to prevent and reduce it. Written by Catharine Paddock PhD

Women with a history of stillbirth 'up to four times higher risk of recurrence'

. About Procardia (Nifedipine) with free prescription new study published in The BMJ finds women are up to four times more likely to experience stillbirth if they had a stillbirth in a previous pregnancy. Women who have experienced stillbirth in a previous pregnancy may be up to four times higher risk of stillbirth in a subsequent pregnancy, according to researchers. Stillbirth - the death of a fetus after 20 weeks gestation - occurs in approximately 1 in 160 pregnancies in the US, with the majority happening before labor. Poor fetal growth, placental problems - such as placental abruption - birth defects, infections and chronic health conditions among mothers are some of the known causes of stillbirth. But as study author Sohinee Bhattacharya and colleagues from the UK s University of Aberdeen note, the cause of stillbirth is often unclear, and it is important to gain a better understanding of factors that may contribute to increased risk of stillbirth. "Stillbirth is one of the most common adverse obstetric outcomes and a traumatic experience for parents yet until recently was largely ignored," they note. Buy Cocoa Tea online Buy Keflex (Cephalexin) without prescription "Couples who have experienced a stillbirth need to understand why it happened and want to know the risk for future pregnancies." For their study, Bhattacharya and colleagues set out to see how a history of stillbirth may impact the risk of experiencing stillbirth in subsequent pregnancies. The team analyzed data from 13 cohort and three case-controlled studies involving 3,412,079 women from the US, Australia, Scotland, Denmark, Israel, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, among other high-income countries. Of these women, 99.3% (3,387,538) had a live birth in an initial pregnancy, while 0.7% (24,541) of the women had a stillbirth in an initial pregnancy - defined in the study as the death of a fetus after 20 weeks of pregnancy or a weight of at least 400 g at birth. Pregnancies after a stillbirth should be closely monitored for fetal compromise The researchers identified 14,283 stillbirths in a subsequent pregnancy. http://medicalhelper.wordpress.com Mysoline (Primidone) Of these, 606 (2.5%) occurred among women who experienced stillbirth in a previous pregnancy, while 0.4% occurred among women who had no history of stillbirth. After adjusting for potential confounders, such as maternal age, smoking status during pregnancy and socioeconomic status, the team calculated that women who experienced a stillbirth in a previous pregnancy had up to four times greater risk of experiencing stillbirth in a subsequent pregnancy, compared with women who had no history of stillbirth. The authors note that only two studies included in their analysis included women who had a history of unexplained stillbirth, and as such, the subsequent risk of stillbirth among these women was unclear. Still, the team says their findings support previous research suggesting a history of stillbirth as an important risk factor for stillbirth recurrence, which may have important implications for clinical practice. About Zithromax (Azithromycin) They add: "Current management of pregnancies should take account of pregnancy history and make use of pre-pregnancy counseling services. Buy Asprin without prescription Based on the available evidence identified by this review, a stillbirth in an initial pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of a subsequent stillbirth, and pregnancies after a stillbirth should be closely monitored with a view to intervene at the first sign of fetal compromise." In July 2014, Medical News Today reported on a study associating Cesarean section in a first birth with greater risk of subsequent stillbirth and ectopic pregnancy. Written by Honor Whiteman

First modern humans in Europe 'interbred with local Neanderthals'

. Buy Children's Fish Oil online About Risnia (Risperidone) with no Rx NA analysis of genetic material from a 40,000-year-old Romanian human jawbone - one of the oldest known modern human bones found in Europe - reveals the individual s DNA was between 6% and 9% Neanderthal. The 40,000-year-old Oase jawbone found in Romania belonged to an individual whose DNA was 6-9% Neanderthal.Image credit: Svante P"a"abo The jawbone was found in 2002 in Oase Cave in southwestern Romania. Writing in Nature, the international team that extracted and sequenced the ancient DNA says the findings show the Oase individual s ancestors included Neanderthals only four to six generations earlier. This implies some of the earliest Homo sapiens to settle in Europe from Africa interbred with local Neanderthals. Previously, it was thought early humans migrating out of Africa mixed with Neanderthals in the Middle East some 55,000 years ago, before spreading to the rest of the world, and did not mix again with Neanderthals, who died out around 40,000 years ago. Co-first author Qiaomei Fu, a research fellow in genetics at Harvard Medical School, says: "The data from the jawbone imply that humans mixed with Neanderthals not just in the Middle East but in Europe as well." The Oase jawbone contains "exceptionally large" segments of Neanderthal DNA Segments of DNA from an ancestor become shorter with each subsequent generation. The researchers found that the Oase jawbone DNA contains some "exceptionally large" segments of Neanderthal origin. http://medicalhelper.wordpress.com About Aprecap About Fosamax (Alendronate) with no prescription Study leader Svante P"a"abo, of the Max Planck Institute in Leipzig, Germany, says they could hardly believe it when they saw the result: "It is such a lucky and unexpected thing to get DNA from a person who was so closely related to a Neanderthal." The researchers believe that the Oase individual is from a population that did not contribute much or at all to today s European ancestry. They suggest he belonged to a group of modern humans who were among the first to reach Europe, mixed with local Neanderthals and were then displaced by later migrations. The DNA of today s humans whose roots lie outside sub-Saharan Africa is between 1% and 3% Neanderthal. Co-first author Mateja Hajdinjak, a graduate student at the Max Planck Institute, says: "We hope that DNA from other human fossils that predate the extinction of Neanderthals will help reconstruct the interactions between Neanderthals and modern humans in even more detail." The study is in line with findings from other fields. Buy Septilin () with no prescription Periactin (Cyproheptadine) without prescription For example, radiocarbon dating of remains from archaeological sites across Europe, and stone tools recovered in Austria, suggest Neanderthals overlapped with modern humans for thousands of years, giving plenty of opportunity for them to interbreed. Written by Catharine Paddock PhD

Climate change is a 'medical emergency,' report suggests

A new report has revealed that climate change could have catastrophic implications for public health, both directly and indirectly. About Dexone (Dexamethasone) Fighting climate change, however, represents the greatest global health opportunity of the century. The Commission reports that reducing carbon emissions is good not just for the planet but for global health as well. The report is the work of a major international research project and is published in The Lancet. Co-chair of the Commission, Prof. Buy Rheumatrex (Methotrexate) without prescription Anthony Costello, Director of the University College London (UCL) Institute for Global Health in the UK, states that climate change has the potential to reverse the health gains from economic development that have been made in recent decades. "However, our analysis clearly shows that by tackling climate change, we can also benefit health, and tackling climate change in fact represents one of the greatest opportunities to benefit human health for generations to come," he states. The 2015 Lancet Commission on Health and Climate Change is a multidisciplinary collaboration between academics, scientists, engineers, policy experts and medical scholars from Europe and China, aiming to assess the impact of climate change and potential policy responses. Climate change leads to more intense and frequent extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, flood and droughts that can directly impact on health. Prilosec (Omeprazole) with free Rx However, the Commission believes that the indirect effects of climate change on food security, water and extreme climatic events such as storms are likely to have the biggest impact on global health. Flooding and drought can compromise food production, making the availability of food and water uncertain and potentially leading to malnutrition. The Commission also suggests that vector-borne diseases will expand their reach due to changes in climate conditions allowing for the proliferation of vectors and the movement of people involuntarily from areas affected by climate change. Buy Amitriptylene with no prescription Air polluting carbon emissions that are behind changes in the climate are associated with certain respiratory diseases. Buy Super ED Trial Pack () with no prescription But while the Commission reports that climate change has a disastrous effect on global public health, many of the proposed ways to tackle the problem will have positive co-benefits for those helping to reduce emissions as well. An opportunity to improve human health Reducing the global consumption of fossil fuels necessitates various lifestyle changes. Buy Calcium Malate online Walking and cycling instead of using motor vehicles not only reduces carbon emissions but reduces the prevalence of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, coronary heart disease and stroke. And in reducing emissions, the prevalence of respiratory diseases caused by airborne pollutants also decreases. Consumption of red meat, whose mass production is harmful to the environment, would also have to be reduced. http://medicalhelper.wordpress.com In turn, many diets that are over-reliant on this form of food would become more balanced and, therefore, healthier. In order for the global situation to improve, the Commission proposes an action plan in which an organization is set up that regularly reports on global health, climate change and what progress has been made in reducing emissions and creating sustainable health systems. One of the report s main editors, Maria Nilsson from the Division of Epidemiology and Global Health at Umea University, Sweden, says that a strong international consensus is needed to create a global economy in which carbon emissions are minimized. "This in turn presents an opportunity to improve human health," she adds. "Measures recommended in this report are particularly important for populations in the world s poorest and most vulnerable areas, which are also currently most affected by climate change." Prof. Peng Gong, co-chair of the Commission from Tsinghua University in Beijing, China, believes that the health community has come together successfully to tackle similarly grave threats in the past. "It took on entrenched interests such as the tobacco industry and led the fight against HIV/AIDS," he states. "Now is the time for us to lead the way in responding to another great threat to human and environmental health of our generation." The findings of the Commission will be discussed during talks at meetings linked to the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris later this year. Recently, Medical News Today reported on a study finding that global warming is unlikely to reduce the number of cold-related deaths that occur during the winter months. Written by James McIntosh

Certain multiple myeloma patients likely to benefit most from panobinostat combination

New findings demonstrate that patients with relapsed or relapsed and refractory multiple myeloma derive the largest benefit from panobinostat combination therapy if they have received >=2 prior regimens, including bortezomib and an immunomodulatory drug. Multiple myeloma occurs in roughly 1-5 of every 100,000 people. The results, which were released at the 20th Congress of the European Hematology Association, are from a subgroup analysis that included 147 patients enrolled in the phase 3 PANobinostat ORAl in Multiple MyelomA (PANORAMA)-1 trial. Panobinostat combined with bortezomib and dexamethasone in multiple myeloma patients who had received >=2 prior lines of therapy, including bortezomib and an immunomodulatory drug (IMiD), had a 7.8-month longer median progression-free survival (PFS) than patients who received placebo plus bortezomib and dexamethasone. Ciloxan (Ciprofloxacin) with no Rx Panobinostat is a potent pan-deacetylase inhibitor that targets aberrations in multiple myeloma biology, including epigenetics and protein metabolism. Dr. About Synthroid (Thyroxine) with no prescription Hermann Einsele, director of the Medical Clinic at University of Wurzberg in Germany, and colleagues elsewhere analyzed outcomes in patients enrolled in the PANORAMA-1 study based on prior treatment characteristics, including receipt of prior IMiDs; bortezomib plus IMiDs; and bortezomib plus IMiDs and >= 2 prior lines of therapy. Unmet medical need for new multiple myeloma treatments "While proteasome inhibitors and IMIDs have significantly improved outcomes for multiple myeloma patients over the last decade, the disease is still incurable," Dr. Viagra with Dapoxetine (Sildenafil with Dapoxetine) with no prescription Einsele observed. Alfacip with free Rx "As a result, there is an unmet medical need for agents with a new mode of action in patients who are relapsed and/or refractory." The PANORAMA-1 study met its primary endpoint (P< .0001), with a clinically relevant increase in median PFS of 3.9 months for patients treated with panobinostat-bortezomib-dexamethasone. Buy Trecator-SC (Ethionamide) with free Rx The subanalysis found that the median PFS increased to 12.5 months in patients who had received >=2 prior regimens, including bortezomib and an IMiD, and were randomized to the panobinostat arm compared with 4.7 months in patients assigned to placebo (hazard ratio=0.47 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.31-0.72]). Buy Blood Pressure online Compared to the placebo arm, treatment with the panobinostat combination also resulted in an increase in complete/near complete response rates (21.9% vs. http://medicalhelper.wordpress.com 8.1%) and overall response rate (58.9% vs. 39.2%). In a subgroup previously treated with an IMiD, the different in median PFS benefit was 4.9 months in favor of the combination therapy. In a subgroup previously treated with bortezomib and an IMiD, the difference in median PFS benefit was 4.8 months favoring combination therapy. Overall, the safety profile for each subgroup was similar to that of the overall population. "Together, these data identify the subgroup of patients with relapsed or relapsed and refractory [multiple myeloma] who benefits most with panobinostat-bortezomib-dexamethasone," Dr. Einsele said. "The findings support the recent [Food and Drug Administration] approval of the panobinostat combination in [multiple myeloma] patients who received >=2 prior regimens, including IMiDs and bortezomib." Multiple myeloma occurs in roughly 1-5 of every 100,000 people worldwide. The PANORAMA-1 study was conducted at 215 centers in 34 countries. Written by Jill Stein

Stealth BioTherapeutics Presents at 2015 United Mitochondrial Disease Foundation National Symposium

BOSTON--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Stealth BioTherapeutics (Stealth), a biopharmaceutical company developing drug candidates for treating mitochondrial dysfunction, provided a development update for its investigational drugs, Bendavia and Ocuvia, and announced future clinical plans for its orphan mitochondrial disease program at the 2015 United Mitochondrial Disease Foundation (UMDF) National Symposium in Washington, D.C. About Azulfidine (Sulfasalazine) UMDF is a leading patient advocacy organization for those with inherited mitochondrial diseases, promoting patient-focused research and education, and supporting its members and their families. Vesicare (Solifenacin) with no prescription Inherited mitochondrial diseases encompass a diverse group of rare genetic disorders caused by mitochondrial dysfunction that severely impair patient well-being and quality of life. During the National Symposium, Stealth updated UMDF participants on the progress of its MMPOWER study for Mitochondrial Myopathy (MM), and announced plans to initiate a broader MM patient trial. About Levitra Professional (Vardenafil) Stealth’s MMPOWER study is investigating Bendavia for the treatment of MM (muscle weakness) in patients with genetic mitochondrial diseases. Buy Adefovir MM is an important component of most mitochondrial diseases—characterized by muscle weakness and impaired exercise capacity, which leads to extraordinary fatigue. “The current treatment options for mitochondrial diseases are limited to vitamins and supplements. About Viagra Strong Pack-20 () with no Rx Without investigational drugs such as Bendavia, there would be no prospect for effective therapies to help the children and adults we represent,” commented Charles Mohan, Executive Director of UMDF. Stealth also detailed its plans to initiate a clinical study in inherited optic neuropathies with its ReSIGHT trial for Leber’s Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON). Buy Babies Personal Care online LHON is a rare genetic mitochondrial disease and the most common inherited optic neuropathy, causing sudden and permanent loss of vision, predominately in young men. http://medicalhelper.wordpress.com Lissa Poincenot, a leading LHON patient advocate, remarked, “We are tremendously excited for Ocuvia’s potential to treat devastating optic neuropathies and improve the lives of our patients.” Bendavia and Ocuvia each target dysfunction in the inner mitochondrial membrane to treat diseases both common and rare, including cardio-renal diseases, ophthalmic disorders and orphan mitochondrial diseases. In studies, Bendavia and Ocuvia modify disease progression by restoring cellular energetics and function. To date, these investigational drugs are well-tolerated, demonstrating patient benefit in clinical studies directed by leading clinicians across several therapeutic areas. “There are more than 270 orphan mitochondrial diseases and no FDA-approved treatments. The impact of these diseases on patient quality of life is very real,” said Chief Executive Officer Travis Wilson. “By focusing on mitochondrial myopathy and inherited optic neuropathies with Bendavia and Ocuvia, we are addressing important orphan disorders with a mitochondrial genetic basis. We are committed to our rare mitochondrial disease program in hopes of providing patients with the first FDA-approved therapy.” For additional information on Bendavia or Ocuvia, and details regarding eligibility for Stealth’s clinical trials in inherited mitochondrial diseases, please refer to StealthBT.com and ClinicalTrials.gov. Mitochondria, The Cell’s Powerhouse Mitochondria are the cell’s powerhouse, responsible for more than 90% of the energy our bodies need to sustain life and support growth. The energetics from mitochondria maintain healthy physiology and prevent disease. In many common and rare diseases, dysfunctional mitochondria are a key component of disease progression. About Mitochondrial Myopathy Inherited mitochondrial diseases often cause patients prominent muscle damage or weakness termed Mitochondrial Myopathy. There are more than 270 genetic mitochondrial diseases with nearly 40,000 patients worldwide suffering from Mitochondrial Myopathy. These rare diseases are caused by mutations, or changes, in genes that affect mitochondrial capacity and quality, diminishing patient quality of life. About Mitochondrial Optic Neuropathies Mitochondrial optic neuropathies include a broad group of orphan genetic diseases that cause vision loss due to mitochondrial dysfunction. Affecting more than 1 in 10,000 individuals, optic neuropathies are common to over 20 inherited mitochondrial diseases. About Bendavia™ and Ocuvia™ Stealth’s lead candidates, Bendavia and Ocuvia, are investigational drugs with the potential to modify disease through mitoprotection—the ability to preserve energetics and restore normal energy production in mitochondria, while decreasing oxidative stress. These clinical candidates are being developed for both common and rare diseases including inherited mitochondrial diseases, where there are no FDA-approved treatments. The underlying science of Bendavia and Ocuvia is supported by more than 100 independent, peer-reviewed publications and abstracts. These mitochondrial-targeted candidates represent a novel therapeutic approach to address a wide variety of diseases having unmet treatment needs. Stealth BioTherapeutics: Leading Mitochondrial Medicine Stealth BioTherapeutics is a privately held biopharmaceutical company committed to bringing mitochondria therapies to patients to treat both common and rare diseases. As an important and common element in a variety of serious, debilitating diseases, mitochondria—the cell’s energy source—offer a promising, and yet untapped, target to modify diseases with significant unmet treatment needs. Stealth’s clinical development program is focused along several core therapeutic areas, including cardio-renal diseases, ophthalmic disorders and orphan mitochondrial diseases. By defining the broad potential of its mitochondrial platform and therapies, Stealth is leading mitochondrial medicine. More information regarding Stealth and its pipeline is available at StealthBT.com.

Chocolate is it really good for our health?

With the average American consuming around 4.5 kg of chocolate each year, it is safe to say it is one of the nation s most loved treats. About Albenza (Albendazole) without prescription It is not hard to fathom why; it tastes delicious and stimulates the release of endorphins - the "feel-good" hormones. About Zenegra (Sildenafil Citrate) with free Rx And according to numerous studies in recent years, chocolate is amazingly good for our health... About Cialis Soft (Tadalafil) or is it? The average American eats around 4.5 kg of chocolate annually. Earlier this week, Medical News Today reported on a study published in the journal Heart, in which researchers from the UK claim eating up to 100 g of chocolate daily may reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke. "Great news," said one of our followers on Facebook in response to this research. Buy Accuretic without prescription "Good, because I can t live without chocolate, I eat it daily!" said another. About Zenegra (Sildenafil Citrate) without Rx Such comments are common in relation to any stories hailing the health benefits of chocolate. Buy Aloe Vera online Many people like to hear good news about a food deemed to be a "guilty pleasure." Naturally, it makes many people feel better about eating it. Other MNT readers, however, were not convinced by the claims of the Heart study, with some questioning how chocolate could possibly have that effect on health when it contains high levels of fat and sugar, while others stated it must have been funded by a chocolate manufacturer. http://medicalhelper.wordpress.com It was, in fact, funded by the UK s Medical Research Council and Cancer Research UK. The difference in opinion about that study is a reflection of the confusion among the general public about whether chocolate really offers health benefits. In this Spotlight, we ask, can chocolate really be good for our health? Or are the potential health benefits of this much-loved treat overstated? The food of the gods When we think of chocolate, many of us visualize a big, chunky bar of sweet deliciousness. But originally, chocolate was only consumed as a bitter beverage. Chocolate - which is made using beans from the cacao tree, native to Central and South America - is estimated to date back as far as 1900 BC, when it was created by pre-Olmec cultures residing in present-day Mexico. The ancient Mesoamericans roasted the cacao beans, or cocoa beans, before grinding them into a paste that was mixed with hot water, vanilla, chili and other spices to make a frothy drink. The Olmec, Aztec and Mayan civilizations found chocolate to be a mood-lifting drink and an aphrodisiac, so much so that they believed the beverage had spiritual qualities. The Mayans even worshipped a cacao God, and the beverage was used for religious and sacred ceremonies, hence why chocolate is often referred to as the "food of the gods." It wasn t until 1847 that chocolate became the solid edible bar we know and love today. A British chocolate company called J.S Fry & Sons created it using cocoa butter - vegetable fat extracted from the cocoa bean - cocoa powder and sugar. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, well-known chocolate manufacturers such as Hershey, Cadbury and Mars were formed, and they have been bringing us an array of heavenly sweet treats ever since. But while we are thankful to these companies for catering to our chocolate needs, they are also responsible for adding potentially unhealthy ingredients to what could be an otherwise healthy - albeit less tasty - food, giving chocolate its reputation as a diet demon. What is in our chocolate? Cocoa beans - from which chocolate is made - are believed to contain more than 300 compounds that are beneficial to health. They are packed full of flavanoids and flavanols, such as anthocyanidin and epicatechins. These are antioxidants, which are known to destroy free radicals in the body - chemicals that can cause damage to DNA and other cell components, accelerating aging and contributing to heart disease, cancer and other diseases. The main ingredient in chocolate - cocoa beans - contains more than 300 compounds that are beneficial to health. The darker the chocolate, the more flavanoids and flavanols it contains, which explains why the majority of chocolate studies have hailed dark chocolate - rather than milk or white - for its health benefits. Cocoa beans also contain dopamine, phenylethylamine and serotonin, all of which are compounds that are known to enhance mood and promote feelings of well-being. So if the main ingredient in chocolate is full of healthy compounds, why shouldn t we eat it by the bucketload? Put simply, the negative health effects of chocolate primarily come from the additional ingredients that are added to it during the commercial manufacturing process. Sugar, full-fat cream and milk are just some of these ingredients, and the quantities in which they are added are not slight. A standard 43 g bar of Hershey s milk chocolate contains 13 g of fat, 24 g of sugar and 210 calories. Eating this product in high quantities could lead to weight gain, and being overweight can increase the risk of numerous health problems, including hypertension, diabetes and heart disease. Because of its high sugar content, chocolate may also raise the risk of dental problems - including gum disease and cavities - if consumed in high amounts. Referring back to the Heart study, however, researchers claim that participants who consumed up to 100 g of chocolate a day were at lower risk of stroke and heart disease. This is an amount the equivalent to more than two Hershey s milk chocolate bars each day, which would take a person well above the recommended daily sugar intake of 25 g for woman and 37.5 g for men. Can eating this amount of chocolate daily really be good for our health? Or has this study and many like it been overstated? Are we succumbing to the media s hype? Looking at the results of the Heart study more closely, the average daily chocolate consumption of the almost 158,000 participants studied was 7 g, while only some of the participants consumed 100 g of chocolate each day. However, the researchers claim that higher chocolate consumption - up to 100 g daily - was associated with a greater reduction in heart disease and stroke risk. But it should be noted that most of these participants were younger with a lower body mass index (BMI) and blood pressure, and they were less likely to have diabetes. Many studies associating chocolate with health benefits are badly conducted, but many news outlets continue to report their findings. "It is hard to know if the lower risk comes from chocolate or those other factors," says Science Media Centre - a media watchdog based in the UK. "The authors have tried to account for these as far as possible, but the nature of the study means that it is not possible to do that perfectly. Therefore, it is possible that the protective effect might be because of something else - not chocolate." Despite this, the Internet was engulfed with media outlets claiming, "Two bars of chocolate a day lowers risk of stroke and heart disease " and "Two chocolate bars a day can SLASH the risk of heart attack and stroke." Could such media coverage be luring the general public into potentially false beliefs that chocolate consumption can have major health benefits? Earlier this month, news outlets around the globe reported on a study conducted by Johannes Bohannon, PhD, research director of the Institute of Diet and Health, which claimed people who ate one chocolate bar a day alongside a low-carbohydrate diet lost weight 10% faster than controls. As MNT revealed, however, the purpose of this study was to see how easy it would be to get badly conducted research into the news. Though the study was real, it was actually conducted by a journalist called John Bohannon, and the Institute of Diet and Health does not exist. The study, which was published in the International Archives of Medicine and covered by news outlets including the Huffington Post and The Daily Mail, was hugely flawed. It contained only 16 participants who were only assessed for a 3-week period, meaning the findings were insignificant - factors that many news reporters failed to acknowledge. "It was terrible science," said Bohannon in an article he penned for website io9. "The results are meaningless, and the health claims that the media blasted out to millions of people around the world are utterly unfounded." Bohannon noted, however, that the general public were very critical of the findings, asking questions that should have been addressed by the reporting journalists. This suggests that many of us are not completely taken in by attention-grabbing headlines hailing the health benefits of chocolate. However, this is not to say chocolate consumption offers no health benefits. Some well-conducted studies have found it could be good for us. The potential health benefits For years, numerous studies have associated moderate chocolate consumption with better heart health. As well as the most recent example published in Heart, in February 2014, MNT reported on a study linking daily consumption of dark chocolate to reduced risk of atherosclerosis - thickening and hardening of the arteries. A study published in 2012, conducted by researchers from the University of California-San Diego School of Medicine, found dark chocolate may benefit patients with advanced heart failure and type 2 diabetes by enhancing the structure of mitochondria - the "powerhouses" of cells - while another study found that cocoa products may help to lower blood pressure. The heart health benefits of chocolate have been put down to the antioxidants it contains, which, as mentioned previously, are found in cocoa beans. High levels of antioxidants can reduce the amount of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad," cholesterol that build up in artery walls, for example. More and more studies are emerging in support of the heart health benefits of chocolate, particularly dark chocolate. However, increasingly, studies are suggesting there may be many more health benefits attached to the yummy treat. In 2013, a study by researchers from Harvard Medical School in Boston, MA, claimed drinking two cups of hot chocolate each day may stave off memory decline in older age by preserving blood flow in working areas of the brain. And another study, published in the Journal of Agricultural Food and Chemistry in 2014, suggested a flavanol in cocoa - called oligomeric procyandins - may protect against obesity and type 2 diabetes. While these studies suggest there may be additional perks to indulging in a chocolatey treat, it should be noted that they are not conclusive, and research is ongoing to determine exactly what health benefits chocolate offers. What is conclusive, however, is that eating excessive amounts of chocolate - as tempting as it might be - can lead to weight gain, increasing our risk of overweight and obesity and associated conditions, such as heart disease and diabetes. But this doesn t mean we have to miss out. Like most foods high in sugar and fat, they can be consumed in moderation. As dietitian and spokesperson of the British Dietetic Association Alison Hornby says: "As an occasional treat, chocolate can be part of a healthy diet. Eaten too frequently, it is an unhealthy choice." Written by Honor Whiteman